This is the index of everything on this site that can be checked. It holds Jenja design values, the pilot-unit entries, the external research used to describe the world, the data sheets and their publication state, the rules that decide what reaches a page, and the sources for every external figure.
This is also where the technical language lives. The pathway pages use plain words; this page uses the engineering terms and gives the conditions behind every figure.
Grant reviewers, investors doing diligence, researchers, journalists and anyone who wants to test a sentence rather than take it on trust.
The entries below are not all measurements. Some are Jenja design values, some are manufacturer requirements, and some come from the earlier, smaller X-series pilot units (X5 and X10). Nothing has been measured on Jenja. The feedstock, the conditions and the basis are stated for every entry.
| Measurement | Figure | Feedstock and conditions | Basis |
|---|---|---|---|
| Throughput, design specification | 150 kg/h | Wood pellets. A different feedstock from the digestate test | Design specification |
| Electrical output | Not yet measured | No engine test has been completed | Not yet shown |
| Availability | Not yet measured | No sustained site operation exists to measure it from | Not yet shown |
| Configurations | Power, heat or cooling | Power: a generator set driven by the fuel gas. Heat: a boiler. Cooling: a boiler with a sorption chiller. Same gasifier core. | Design specification (Zero-X product definition) |
| Drying unit | Can be supplied | Wet feedstock is dried before gasification, and Jenja's heat can be used to dry it. Ready-made dry pellets do not need this step. | Manufacturer statement, no published document yet |
| Fuel preparation | Dried and pelletised | Required before the reactor | Design specification |
| Straw | Tested | Earlier X5 pilot unit, Zittau. Public report: Forschungsbericht: Strohvergasung, Hochschule Zittau/Görlitz, 2021 | Zero-X pilot data, public report |
| Digestate pellets | Turned into fuel gas | Earlier X10 test unit, COMETHA campaign, Paris | Partner data, not yet shown |
| High-ash fuels | Tested | Earlier X-series pilot units | Pilot data, not yet shown |
The pilot data belongs to SIAAP and Syctom. We will publish it when they approve it.
Methane breaks down in about 12 years, while carbon dioxide persists for centuries. So per tonne emitted, methane traps about 80 times as much heat as CO₂ over twenty years, and about 27 to 30 times as much over a hundred (IPCC AR6; Forster et al., 2021; Greenhouse Gas Protocol, 2024).
| Gas | GWP100 | GWP20 | Why the horizon matters |
|---|---|---|---|
| Methane, biogenic | 27.0 | 80.8 (about 81) | Biogenic methane from decomposing organic material. The twenty-year figure is roughly three times the hundred-year figure, which is why the horizon is always named. |
| Methane, fossil | 29.8 | 82.5 | Fossil methane, from fossil sources rather than recent biomass. Higher than biogenic on both horizons. |
How biogenic carbon dioxide is counted. Under IPCC inventory rules, biogenic carbon dioxide from biomass is reported as an information item rather than as a net emission. That is why the countable savings in these pathways would be methane, nitrous oxide, black carbon and smoke rather than a carbon dioxide line taken from avoided open burning. The baseline depends on the feedstock, and it is named for each pathway before any avoided emission is claimed.
The trade-off this creates. Carbon in the feedstock goes either to gas, and then to power or heat, or to char and possible retention. It does not go to both. Any figure that adds a char retention benefit to a power generation benefit is counting the same carbon twice, and pathways 3 and 5 are therefore never summed.
Sources: IPCC AR6 Working Group 1, Chapter 7, Table 7.15 for the warming figures (Forster et al., 2021), with global warming potential values also per the Greenhouse Gas Protocol (2024). IPCC 2006 Guidelines, Volume 5, Chapter 5 for the treatment of biogenic carbon dioxide. Full entries are in the reference list at the foot of this page.
Measured on an earlier pilot unit, published external evidence, not yet shown, or deployment dependent. Every claim carries its label, so a reader never has to guess which kind of statement they are reading.
An avoided emission requires a baseline defined in advance. No baseline, no avoided-emissions claim. It follows the WBCSD's reference-scenario approach, and it is applied to every pathway on this site.
Power and heat generation is one mode. Fuel-production configurations are a different mode. Their figures never appear in the same comparison, and hydrogen and aviation fuel cannot run at the same time as power.
Char is described by what testing shows for that batch and that feedstock. Testing is a gate, not a reassurance: a batch that fails is a disposal cost, and the feedstock decides whether a soil route is legally open at all.
These are the costs that would come with running this machine, and every one of them would be part of the balance we would have to publish.
The World Bank and UNDP gasifier monitoring programme is a useful external check on this machine type, because it monitored real installations rather than designs. It reports higher engine wear and harmful condensates. Those are known risks of this technology class.
Source: Stassen, World Bank Technical Paper 296, 1995, and the UNDP and World Bank gasifier monitoring programme, 1986 to 1990.
We do not yet hold a life cycle assessment for Jenja. Until one exists, defined per tonne of feedstock treated at a named site and assessed across the EU Environmental Footprint's 16 impact categories, we do not add these pathways into a single total.
The left column is what earlier test units have done, the middle column is engineering we owe ourselves, and the right column is what a real deployment would teach us.
Each verified factual claim on this site carries a small numbered marker. The number points to the row below. 55 claims are cited here, against 65 sources. Where a claim rests on more than one source, each source has its own row under that claim.
Five kinds of evidence appear on this site, and they are never mixed. The label on every row says which one it is: independent peer-reviewed research; independent institutional publications; Zero-X pilot data from the earlier X5 unit, where it is public; Zero-X design specification; and partner data that is not yet shown.
Research published in a peer-reviewed journal. It describes the world or the technology class, not Jenja.
A report or dataset published by an institution such as FAO or the World Bank. It describes the world, not Jenja.
Jenja design values and fuel requirements, for example 150 kg/h, dry, pelletised, metal-free. A design value or manufacturer requirement, not a measurement.
COMETHA data owned by SIAAP and Syctom. No figures are shown. The pilot data belongs to SIAAP and Syctom. We will publish it when they approve it.
Data from the earlier, smaller X-series pilot units (the X5 and X10). Used only where the document is publicly available or cleared for public sharing. Nothing has been measured on Jenja.
| Claim | Source | What the source shows | Evidence type |
|---|---|---|---|
| Most small-scale gasifiers are built for clean wood chip1 | Most small-scale gasifiers are built for clean wood chip1Malaťáková, J., Jankovský, M., Malaťák, J., Velebil, J., Tamelová, B., Gendek, A., & Aniszewska, M. (2021). Evaluation of small-scale gasification for CHP for wood from salvage logging in the Czech Republic. Forests, 12(11), 1448. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12111448 https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/12/11/1448 | Most manufacturers of small gasifiers (up to 200 kW electric) allow a maximum of 1% ash in the fuel, a limit clean wood chips easily meet. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| because the ash in fuels like straw, household waste and sewage sludge melts into slag that can block the reactor and stop the plant.2 | because the ash in fuels like straw, household waste and sewage sludge melts into slag that can block the reactor and stop the plant.2Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (1986). Wood gas as engine fuel (FAO Forestry Paper 72), section 2.4.5 and Table 2.5. https://www.fao.org/4/T0512E/T0512e0b.htm | Melting ash can completely block fixed-bed gasifiers; in lab tests, straw and pellets made from household waste (RDF) caused severe slagging. | Independent: institutional |
| because the ash in fuels like straw, household waste and sewage sludge melts into slag that can block the reactor and stop the plant.2Seggiani, M., Vitolo, S., Puccini, M., & Bellini, A. (2012). Cogasification of sewage sludge in an updraft gasifier. Fuel, 93, 486-491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.08.054 https://agris.fao.org/search/en/records/65e01aed4c5aef494fe84b6e | At high sewage sludge content, slagging and clinker formation made the gasification process unstable, due to the sludge's high ash content and low ash melting temperature. | Independent: peer-reviewed | |
| That leaves crop residues and household rubbish to the cheapest routes: dumping, landfilling or burning in the open.3 | That leaves crop residues and household rubbish to the cheapest routes: dumping, landfilling or burning in the open.3Kaur, M., Malik, D. P., Malhi, G. S., Sardana, V., Bolan, N. S., Lal, R., & Siddique, K. H. M. (2022). Rice residue management in the Indo-Gangetic Plains for climate and food security. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 42(5), Article 92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-022-00817-0 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13593-022-00817-0 | Burning is the most common way farmers manage rice residues, mainly because it is simple and low-cost. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| That leaves crop residues and household rubbish to the cheapest routes: dumping, landfilling or burning in the open.3World Bank. (2025). What a Waste 3.0: Global snapshot of solid waste management toward circularity until 2050. https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/what-a-waste | In Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, the vast majority of waste is openly dumped. | Independent: institutional | |
| That leaves crop residues and household rubbish to the cheapest routes: dumping, landfilling or burning in the open.3Dijkgraaf, E., & Vollebergh, H. R. J. (2004). Burn or bury? A social cost comparison of final waste disposal methods. Ecological Economics, 50(3-4), 233-247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.03.029 https://research.tilburguniversity.edu/en/publications/burn-or-bury-a-social-cost-comparison-of-final-waste-disposal-met/ | Landfilling is much cheaper than incineration in private costs, even in a densely populated country like the Netherlands. | Independent: peer-reviewed | |
| These add to greenhouse gas emissions and harm the environment and people's health.4 | These add to greenhouse gas emissions and harm the environment and people's health.4Kaur, M., Malik, D. P., Malhi, G. S., Sardana, V., Bolan, N. S., Lal, R., & Siddique, K. H. M. (2022). Rice residue management in the Indo-Gangetic Plains for climate and food security. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 42(5), Article 92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-022-00817-0 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13593-022-00817-0 | Burning is the most common way farmers manage rice residues, mainly because it is simple and low-cost. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| These add to greenhouse gas emissions and harm the environment and people's health.4World Bank. (2025). What a Waste 3.0: Global snapshot of solid waste management toward circularity until 2050. https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/what-a-waste | In Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, the vast majority of waste is openly dumped. | Independent: institutional | |
| Throughput, design specification: 150 kg/h on wood pellets. | Throughput, design specification: 150 kg/h on wood pellets.Jenja design specification (Zero-X / MFC). | A design value for Jenja, not a measurement. Nothing has been measured on Jenja. | Zero-X design specification |
| The pilot data belongs to SIAAP and Syctom. We will publish it when they approve it. | The pilot data belongs to SIAAP and Syctom. We will publish it when they approve it.COMETHA pilot data, owned by SIAAP and Syctom. No public figure is available yet. | The pilot data belongs to SIAAP and Syctom. We will publish it when they approve it. | Partner data, not yet shown |
| Crop residues, household waste and sewage sludge are hard to turn into energy: their ash melts into slag, so most small gasifiers only run on clean wood chip.5 | Crop residues, household waste and sewage sludge are hard to turn into energy: their ash melts into slag, so most small gasifiers only run on clean wood chip.5Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (1986). Wood gas as engine fuel (FAO Forestry Paper 72), section 2.4.5 and Table 2.5. https://www.fao.org/4/T0512E/T0512e0b.htm | Melting ash can completely block fixed-bed gasifiers; in lab tests, straw and pellets made from household waste (RDF) caused severe slagging. | Independent: institutional |
| Crop residues, household waste and sewage sludge are hard to turn into energy: their ash melts into slag, so most small gasifiers only run on clean wood chip.5Seggiani, M., Vitolo, S., Puccini, M., & Bellini, A. (2012). Cogasification of sewage sludge in an updraft gasifier. Fuel, 93, 486-491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.08.054 https://agris.fao.org/search/en/records/65e01aed4c5aef494fe84b6e | At high sewage sludge content, slagging and clinker formation made the gasification process unstable, due to the sludge's high ash content and low ash melting temperature. | Independent: peer-reviewed | |
| Crop residues, household waste and sewage sludge are hard to turn into energy: their ash melts into slag, so most small gasifiers only run on clean wood chip.5Malaťáková, J., Jankovský, M., Malaťák, J., Velebil, J., Tamelová, B., Gendek, A., & Aniszewska, M. (2021). Evaluation of small-scale gasification for CHP for wood from salvage logging in the Czech Republic. Forests, 12(11), 1448. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12111448 https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/12/11/1448 | Most manufacturers of small gasifiers (up to 200 kW electric) allow a maximum of 1% ash in the fuel, a limit clean wood chips easily meet. | Independent: peer-reviewed | |
| The waste goes the cheapest way instead.6 | The waste goes the cheapest way instead.6Kaur, M., Malik, D. P., Malhi, G. S., Sardana, V., Bolan, N. S., Lal, R., & Siddique, K. H. M. (2022). Rice residue management in the Indo-Gangetic Plains for climate and food security. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 42(5), Article 92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-022-00817-0 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13593-022-00817-0 | Burning is the most common way farmers manage rice residues, mainly because it is simple and low-cost. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| The waste goes the cheapest way instead.6World Bank. (2025). What a Waste 3.0: Global snapshot of solid waste management toward circularity until 2050. https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/what-a-waste | In Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, the vast majority of waste is openly dumped. | Independent: institutional | |
| The waste goes the cheapest way instead.6Dijkgraaf, E., & Vollebergh, H. R. J. (2004). Burn or bury? A social cost comparison of final waste disposal methods. Ecological Economics, 50(3-4), 233-247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.03.029 https://research.tilburguniversity.edu/en/publications/burn-or-bury-a-social-cost-comparison-of-final-waste-disposal-met/ | Landfilling is much cheaper than incineration in private costs, even in a densely populated country like the Netherlands. | Independent: peer-reviewed | |
| An estimated 41 % of the waste generated worldwide is burned in the open, releasing pollutants that harm people's health.7 | An estimated 41 % of the waste generated worldwide is burned in the open, releasing pollutants that harm people's health.7Wiedinmyer, C., Yokelson, R. J., & Gullett, B. K. (2014). Global emissions of trace gases, particulate matter, and hazardous air pollutants from open burning of domestic waste. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(16), 9523-9530. https://doi.org/10.1021/es502250z https://news.ucar.edu/12239/trash-burning-worldwide-significantly-worsens-air-pollution | An estimated 41 % of the waste generated worldwide (about 1.1 billion tons a year) is disposed of by unregulated open burning. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| An estimated 41 % of the waste generated worldwide is burned in the open, releasing pollutants that harm people's health.7Kodros, J. K., Wiedinmyer, C., Ford, B., Cucinotta, R., Gan, R., Magzamen, S., & Pierce, J. R. (2016). Global burden of mortalities due to chronic exposure to ambient PM2.5 from open combustion of domestic waste. Environmental Research Letters, 11(12), 124022. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/12/124022 https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/11/12/124022 | Fine particulate pollution from open burning of household waste causes an estimated 270,000 premature adult deaths a year. | Independent: peer-reviewed | |
| At the same time, 655 million people still had no electricity in 2024, most of them in Sub-Saharan Africa.8 | At the same time, 655 million people still had no electricity in 2024, most of them in Sub-Saharan Africa.8IEA, IRENA, UN DESA, World Bank, & WHO. (2026). Tracking SDG7: The energy progress report 2026. https://www.seforall.org/publications/tracking-sdg7 | "Sub-Saharan Africa ... was home to 563 million of the 655 million people without electricity" (page 13) and "Sub-Saharan Africa's share of the global access deficit has grown from 49 percent to 86 percent over this period, as the number of people lacking access in the region dipped from 565 to 563 million" (page 25). Tracking SDG7: The energy progress report 2026. | Independent: institutional |
| Off the grid, the usual answer is a diesel generator, with fuel that is costly to transport9 | Off the grid, the usual answer is a diesel generator, with fuel that is costly to transport9Szabó, S., Bódis, K., Huld, T., & Moner-Girona, M. (2011). Energy solutions in rural Africa: Mapping electrification costs of distributed solar and diesel generation versus grid extension. Environmental Research Letters, 6(3), 034002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/6/3/034002 https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/6/3/034002/pdf | Diesel generators have been the traditional solution to decentralized electrification needs. They present lower up-front capital costs, but the increase in fuel costs and the cost of transport to remote areas greatly diminish that advantage. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| and exhaust that causes lung cancer.10 | and exhaust that causes lung cancer.10Benbrahim-Tallaa, L., Baan, R. A., Grosse, Y., Lauby-Secretan, B., El Ghissassi, F., Bouvard, V., Guha, N., Loomis, D., Straif, K., & International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. (2012). Carcinogenicity of diesel-engine and gasoline-engine exhausts and some nitroarenes. The Lancet Oncology, 13(7), 663-664. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(12)70280-2 https://www.iarc.who.int/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/pr213_E.pdf | The WHO's cancer agency (IARC) classified diesel engine exhaust as carcinogenic to humans, with sufficient evidence that it causes lung cancer. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| In the Paris region, two public bodies deal with what millions of people leave behind: Syctom handles household waste, and SIAAP treats wastewater. Together they set up COMETHA, a programme to find better ways to turn sewage sludge and the organic part of household waste into energy.11 | In the Paris region, two public bodies deal with what millions of people leave behind: Syctom handles household waste, and SIAAP treats wastewater. Together they set up COMETHA, a programme to find better ways to turn sewage sludge and the organic part of household waste into energy.11Fraunhofer IGB. (2026). Cométha: SIAAP Syctom innovation partnership for the treatment of organic waste and sewage sludge in the greater Paris area. Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology IGB. https://www.igb.fraunhofer.de/en/reference-projects/cometha.html | Syctom treats the municipal waste of around 6 million people and SIAAP the wastewater of almost 9 million in the Paris region. Together they set up the COMETHA innovation partnership to convert municipal organic waste combined with sewage sludge into biogas or methane. | Independent: institutional |
| including ash-rich fuels most small gasifiers can't take12 | including ash-rich fuels most small gasifiers can't take12Malaťáková, J., Jankovský, M., Malaťák, J., Velebil, J., Tamelová, B., Gendek, A., & Aniszewska, M. (2021). Evaluation of small-scale gasification for CHP for wood from salvage logging in the Czech Republic. Forests, 12(11), 1448. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12111448 https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/12/11/1448 | Most manufacturers of small gasifiers (up to 200 kW electric) allow a maximum of 1% ash in the fuel, a limit clean wood chips easily meet. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| including ash-rich fuels most small gasifiers can't take12Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (1986). Wood gas as engine fuel (FAO Forestry Paper 72), section 2.4.5 and Table 2.5. https://www.fao.org/4/T0512E/T0512e0b.htm | Melting ash can completely block fixed-bed gasifiers; in lab tests, straw and pellets made from household waste (RDF) caused severe slagging. | Independent: institutional | |
| people worldwide had no access to electricity in 2024. Reaching universal access by 2030 would take more than triple the current rate of progress.13 | people worldwide had no access to electricity in 2024. Reaching universal access by 2030 would take more than triple the current rate of progress.13IEA, IRENA, UN DESA, World Bank, & WHO. (2026). Tracking SDG7: The energy progress report 2026. https://www.seforall.org/publications/tracking-sdg7 | 655 million people were without electricity in 2024. Universal access by 2030 would require the pace of progress to more than triple. | Independent: institutional |
| Beyond a working grid the usual answer is a diesel generator, which means fuel bought, delivered and paid for at a price the operator does not set14 | Beyond a working grid the usual answer is a diesel generator, which means fuel bought, delivered and paid for at a price the operator does not set14Szabó, S., Bódis, K., Huld, T., & Moner-Girona, M. (2011). Energy solutions in rural Africa: Mapping electrification costs of distributed solar and diesel generation versus grid extension. Environmental Research Letters, 6(3), 034002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/6/3/034002 https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/6/3/034002/pdf | Diesel generators have been the traditional solution to decentralized electrification needs. They present lower up-front capital costs, but the increase in fuel costs and the cost of transport to remote areas greatly diminish that advantage. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| , and exhaust that causes lung cancer.15 | , and exhaust that causes lung cancer.15Benbrahim-Tallaa, L., Baan, R. A., Grosse, Y., Lauby-Secretan, B., El Ghissassi, F., Bouvard, V., Guha, N., Loomis, D., Straif, K., & International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. (2012). Carcinogenicity of diesel-engine and gasoline-engine exhausts and some nitroarenes. The Lancet Oncology, 13(7), 663-664. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(12)70280-2 https://www.iarc.who.int/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/pr213_E.pdf | The WHO's cancer agency (IARC) classified diesel engine exhaust as carcinogenic to humans, with sufficient evidence that it causes lung cancer. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| Close to 1 billion people in low- and lower-middle-income countries are served by health-care facilities with unreliable electricity or none at all.16 | Close to 1 billion people in low- and lower-middle-income countries are served by health-care facilities with unreliable electricity or none at all.16World Health Organization. (2026, October 14). Electricity in health-care facilities [Fact sheet]. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/electricity-in-health-care-facilities | "Close to 1 billion people in low- and lower-middle-income countries are estimated to be served by health-care facilities without reliable electricity or with no electricity access at all." | Independent: institutional |
| Husks make up about a fifth of the weight of harvested rice, so they pile up wherever rice is milled. Handled badly, they take up large amounts of space and create environmental and health risks.17 | Husks make up about a fifth of the weight of harvested rice, so they pile up wherever rice is milled. Handled badly, they take up large amounts of space and create environmental and health risks.17Geethakarthi, A. (2021). Novel approaches towards sustainable management of an agricultural residue: The rice husk. Nature Environment and Pollution Technology, 20(1), 349-355. https://doi.org/10.46488/NEPT.2021.v20i01.040 | Passage A (p. 349): "The improper handling and disposal management of RH has resulted in environmental and population health risk, due to its large space occupancy and leaching." Passage B (p. 350): "The RH generated from the milling industry form about 22% by weight of paddy". | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| Rice husk is already used as a fuel, including through gasification.18 | Rice husk is already used as a fuel, including through gasification.18Geethakarthi, A. (2021). Novel approaches towards sustainable management of an agricultural residue: The rice husk. Nature Environment and Pollution Technology, 20(1), 349-355. https://doi.org/10.46488/NEPT.2021.v20i01.040 | Passage C (p. 350): "is used as an alternate fuel for paddy processing and producing energy through gasification". | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| Deliberate open burning of crop residues, including corn cobs, emits greenhouse gases and toxic pollutants into the atmosphere.19 | Deliberate open burning of crop residues, including corn cobs, emits greenhouse gases and toxic pollutants into the atmosphere.19Prateep Na Talang, R., Na Sorn, W., Polruang, S., & Sirivithayapakorn, S. (2024). Alternative crop residue management practices to mitigate the environmental and economic impacts of open burning of agricultural residues. Scientific Reports, 14, 14372. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-65389-3 | Deliberate open burning of crop residues emits greenhouse gases and toxic pollutants into the atmosphere. The paper defines corn residue as including corn cobs, leaves and stalks. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| Coconut waste is commonly mismanaged by direct disposal and open burning, causing pollution and harm to health.20 | Coconut waste is commonly mismanaged by direct disposal and open burning, causing pollution and harm to health.20Ajien, A., Idris, J., Md Sofwan, N., Husen, R., & Seli, H. (2023). Coconut shell and husk biochar: A review of production and activation technology. Waste Management & Research, 41. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9925910/ | Coconut waste biomass is commonly mismanaged by direct disposal and open burning, hence causing detrimental human health and environmental pollution. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| In Nigeria, wood residue from the wood industry is generally regarded as waste. It is often burned in the open or dumped in water or on open ground.21 | In Nigeria, wood residue from the wood industry is generally regarded as waste. It is often burned in the open or dumped in water or on open ground.21Owoyemi, J. M., Zakariya, H. O., & Elegbede, I. O. (2016). Sustainable wood waste management in Nigeria. Environmental & Socio-economic Studies, 4(3), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1515/environ-2016-0012 | Passage A (p. 1): "In Nigeria, this residue is generally regarded as waste and this has led to open burning practices, dumping in water bodies or dumping in an open area which constitutes environmental pollution." | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| Left in heaps at the mill, it is also a serious fire hazard.22 | Left in heaps at the mill, it is also a serious fire hazard.22Owoyemi, J. M., Zakariya, H. O., & Elegbede, I. O. (2016). Sustainable wood waste management in Nigeria. Environmental & Socio-economic Studies, 4(3), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1515/environ-2016-0012 | Passage B (p. 5): "Sawdust and other process dusts present a fire and explosion risk in mills." Passage C (p. 8): "Accumulation of waste in a dump or landfill at the sawmill is not acceptable as these options present a serious fire hazard, which once started can be very difficult to control". | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| Wood residue is already used as fuel for heat and power, including through gasification.23 | Wood residue is already used as fuel for heat and power, including through gasification.23Owoyemi, J. M., Zakariya, H. O., & Elegbede, I. O. (2016). Sustainable wood waste management in Nigeria. Environmental & Socio-economic Studies, 4(3), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1515/environ-2016-0012 | Passage D (p. 7): "Conversion of biomass wood fuel into electricity, using gasification could play a prominent role in reuse of waste wood". Passage E (p. 8): "Wood waste can be used as a fuel to generate heat/power for the facility’s space heating and process needs". | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| Where there is no proper management, bagasse and other crop residues are burnt or buried, polluting air and water.24 | Where there is no proper management, bagasse and other crop residues are burnt or buried, polluting air and water.24Nunta, R., Techapun, C., Sommanee, S., Mahakuntha, C., Porninta, K., Punyodom, W., Phimolsiripol, Y., Rachtanapun, P., Wang, W., Zhuang, X., Qi, W., Jantanasakulwong, K., Reungsang, A., Kumar, A., & Leksawasdi, N. (2023). Valorization of rice straw, sugarcane bagasse and sweet sorghum bagasse for the production of bioethanol and phenylacetylcarbinol. Scientific Reports, 13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-27451-4 | Sugarcane bagasse, rice straw, corncobs and sweet sorghum bagasse are the most common waste biomass generated by agro-industries; in many countries, in the absence of proper management, they are currently burnt or buried beneath the soil which leads to air and water pollution. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| When shells are dumped or burned in the open, they pollute land and water and release hazardous fumes.25 | When shells are dumped or burned in the open, they pollute land and water and release hazardous fumes.25Naidu, S., Kakku, S., Mishra, R. K., Somu, P., Joshi, J., Thota, C., Karthikeyan, S., & Sharma, A. (2026). Integrated pyrolysis of pine needles and cashewnut shells: optimizing process conditions for the production of renewable fuel and value-added chemicals. RSC Advances, 16. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12863128/ | Improper shell disposal pollutes land and water, and open burning emits hazardous fumes. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| In the EU, about half of sewage sludge is spread on farmland, 28% is burned and 18% is landfilled. Spreading and burning it can harm the environment and people's health.26 | In the EU, about half of sewage sludge is spread on farmland, 28% is burned and 18% is landfilled. Spreading and burning it can harm the environment and people's health.26Fini, E. H., Kazemi, M., Poulikakos, L., Lazorenko, G., Akbarzade, V., Lamanna, A., & Lammers, P. (2024). Perspectives on innovative non-fertilizer applications of sewage sludge for mitigating environmental and health hazards. Communications Engineering, 3. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11603199/ | Passage A (Introduction): "In the European Union, 50% of sewage sludge is distributed on agricultural soils, 28% is burned, and 18% is landfilled". Passage B (Risk of toxicity from products derived from sewage sludge): "Conventional applications of sewage sludge, such as agricultural use and energy generation through incineration, present health and environmental risks because of inadequate heat treatment or emission of toxic gases to the atmosphere". | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| Sewage sludge holds enough energy to be a possible fuel.27 | Sewage sludge holds enough energy to be a possible fuel.27Fini, E. H., Kazemi, M., Poulikakos, L., Lazorenko, G., Akbarzade, V., Lamanna, A., & Lammers, P. (2024). Perspectives on innovative non-fertilizer applications of sewage sludge for mitigating environmental and health hazards. Communications Engineering, 3. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11603199/ | Passage C (Introduction): "Sewage sludges’ high caloric value, at 12 to 18 MJ per kg, positions them as a potential energy source". | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| Although 77% of global waste is collected, 23% is still openly dumped.28 | Although 77% of global waste is collected, 23% is still openly dumped.28World Health Organization. (2025). Open waste burning: sectoral solutions for air pollution and health: Technical brief. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/B09367 | Although 77% of global waste is collected, 23% is waste still openly dumped. | Independent: institutional |
| Burning waste releases fine particles linked to an estimated 270,000 deaths a year.29 | Burning waste releases fine particles linked to an estimated 270,000 deaths a year.29World Health Organization. (2025). Open waste burning: sectoral solutions for air pollution and health: Technical brief. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/B09367 | A 2016 study estimated that approximately 270 000 deaths (95% CI: 213 000-328 000) each year are attributed to PM2.5 from waste burning. | Independent: institutional |
| of food is lost between harvest and retail.30 | of food is lost between harvest and retail.30FAO. (2019). The State of Food and Agriculture 2019: Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction. FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/ca6030en/CA6030EN.pdf | The report states that globally around 14 percent of the world's food is lost from production before reaching the retail level, and that around 14 percent of food produced is lost from post-harvest up to, but not including, the retail level. | Independent: institutional |
| Poor storage and a lack of cooling are among the main causes.31 | Poor storage and a lack of cooling are among the main causes.31FAO. (2019). The State of Food and Agriculture 2019: Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction. FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/ca6030en/CA6030EN.pdf | The report states that significant losses are caused by inadequate storage conditions as well as decisions made at earlier stages of the supply chain, which predispose products to a shorter shelf life, and that a lack of cooling facilities is among the major causes of losses. | Independent: institutional |
| people, one in four worldwide, were without safely managed drinking water in 2024.32 | people, one in four worldwide, were without safely managed drinking water in 2024.32WHO and UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme. (2025). Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000-2024: special focus on inequalities. JMP. https://washdata.org/reports/jmp-2025-wash-households | The report says 2.1 billion people still lack safely managed drinking water, and that despite gains since 2015, 1 in 4, or 2.1 billion people globally, still lack access to safely managed drinking water, including 106 million who drink directly from untreated surface sources. The figure refers to 2024, the most recent year in the report. | Independent: institutional |
| deaths among children under five in 2019 linked to unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene. Part of 1.4 million such deaths in total that year, most of them from diarrhoeal disease.33 | deaths among children under five in 2019 linked to unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene. Part of 1.4 million such deaths in total that year, most of them from diarrhoeal disease.33World Health Organization. (2023, June 28). Improving access to water, sanitation and hygiene can save 1.4 million lives per year, says new WHO report [Departmental update]. WHO. https://www.who.int/news/item/28-06-2023-improving-access-to-water--sanitation-and-hygiene-can-save-1.4-million-lives-per-year--says-new-who-report | Among children under five, unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene was responsible for 395 000 deaths and 37 million disability-adjusted life years, and unsafe WASH could have prevented at least 1.4 million deaths in 2019. The report says diarrhoeal disease accounted for most of the attributable burden, with over one million deaths. | Independent: institutional |
| Researchers have modelled a biomass gasifier, an engine and an absorption chiller working together to supply a building with power, heat and cooling.34 | Researchers have modelled a biomass gasifier, an engine and an absorption chiller working together to supply a building with power, heat and cooling.34Huang, Y., Wang, Y. D., Rezvani, S., McIlveen-Wright, D. R., Anderson, M., & Hewitt, N. J. (2011). Biomass fuelled trigeneration system in selected buildings. Energy Conversion and Management, 52(6), 2448-2454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2010.12.053 | The paper's abstract describes a trigeneration system combining an internal combustion engine with biomass gasification to deliver heat, electricity and cooling, and states that the work focuses on the modeling and simulation of a commercial building scale trigeneration plant fuelled by a biomass downdraft gasifier, using the ECLIPSE process simulation package. The system was modelled, not operated. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| Most pathogens are inactivated at 60 to 70 degrees Celsius for at least one minute, and practical guidance is 70 degrees for 15 minutes.35 | Most pathogens are inactivated at 60 to 70 degrees Celsius for at least one minute, and practical guidance is 70 degrees for 15 minutes.35German Toilet Organization. (n.d.). Water pasteurisation. In Emergency WASH technical guidance. https://www.emergency-wash.org/water/en/technologies/technology/pasteurisation | Most protozoa, bacteria and viruses are inactivated at temperatures between 60 and 70 degrees Celsius and an exposure time of at least one minute; in practice, water pasteurisation means maintaining water at 70 degrees Celsius for 15 minutes. | Independent: institutional |
| Pasteurisation gives no lasting protection, so treated water should be used soon and stored in safe containers.36 | Pasteurisation gives no lasting protection, so treated water should be used soon and stored in safe containers.36German Toilet Organization. (n.d.). Water pasteurisation. In Emergency WASH technical guidance. https://www.emergency-wash.org/water/en/technologies/technology/pasteurisation | Pasteurisation does not provide residual protection, and treated water should be consumed shortly after pasteurisation and stored in safe water storage containers. | Independent: institutional |
| Pasteurisation does not remove turbidity.37 | Pasteurisation does not remove turbidity.37German Toilet Organization. (n.d.). Water pasteurisation. In Emergency WASH technical guidance. https://www.emergency-wash.org/water/en/technologies/technology/pasteurisation | Generally, turbid waters can be pasteurised as well, although the turbidity will remain and it might be necessary to increase the pasteurisation time to assure sufficient inactivation of microorganisms. | Independent: institutional |
| Diesel exhaust also causes lung cancer.38 | Diesel exhaust also causes lung cancer.38Benbrahim-Tallaa, L., Baan, R. A., Grosse, Y., Lauby-Secretan, B., El Ghissassi, F., Bouvard, V., Guha, N., Loomis, D., Straif, K., & International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. (2012). Carcinogenicity of diesel-engine and gasoline-engine exhausts and some nitroarenes. The Lancet Oncology, 13(7), 663-664. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(12)70280-2 https://www.iarc.who.int/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/pr213_E.pdf | The WHO's cancer agency (IARC) classified diesel engine exhaust as carcinogenic to humans, with sufficient evidence that it causes lung cancer. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| Worldwide, burning fossil fuels and making cement released about 10.3 billion tonnes of carbon in 2024, and by 2025 the carbon dioxide in the air had risen to an estimated 53 percent above its level before industrialisation.39 | Worldwide, burning fossil fuels and making cement released about 10.3 billion tonnes of carbon in 2024, and by 2025 the carbon dioxide in the air had risen to an estimated 53 percent above its level before industrialisation.39Friedlingstein, P., O'Sullivan, M., Jones, M. W., Andrew, R. M., Bakker, D. C. E., Hauck, J., Landschützer, P., Le Quéré, C., et al. (2026). Global Carbon Budget 2025. Earth System Science Data. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-18-3211-2026 | "For the year 2024, EFOS increased by 1.1 % relative to 2023, with fossil emissions at 10.3 ± 0.5 GtC yr-1 (including the cement carbonation sink, 0.2 GtC yr-1)" and "Consolidated data confirm a growth of 1.1 % in 2024 relative to 2023, with fossil CO2 emissions of 10.3 ± 0.5 GtC yr-1 (37.8 ± 1.8 GtCO2 yr-1) in 2024." and "Preliminary data for 2025 suggest an increase in EFOS relative to 2024 of +1.0 % (0.2 % to 1.7 %) globally, and atmospheric CO2 concentration increasing by 2.1 ppm reaching 425.6 ppm, 53 % above the pre-industrial level (around 278 ppm in 1750)." | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| Fossil fuels also foul the air people breathe. Researchers estimate that phasing them out could prevent about 3.6 million deaths a year from outdoor air pollution worldwide.40 | Fossil fuels also foul the air people breathe. Researchers estimate that phasing them out could prevent about 3.6 million deaths a year from outdoor air pollution worldwide.40Lelieveld, J., Klingmüller, K., Pozzer, A., Burnett, R. T., Haines, A., & Ramanathan, V. (2019). Effects of fossil fuel and total anthropogenic emission removal on public health and climate. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1819989116 | "We show that it can avoid an excess mortality rate of 3.61 (2.96-4.21) million per year from outdoor air pollution worldwide." | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| The carbon in residue came from plants, which took it from the air as they grew. Fossil fuel adds carbon that was out of circulation for millions of years. Plant carbon still spends time in the air before new growth takes it back up, and how long depends on how fast the plants grow back.41 | The carbon in residue came from plants, which took it from the air as they grew. Fossil fuel adds carbon that was out of circulation for millions of years. Plant carbon still spends time in the air before new growth takes it back up, and how long depends on how fast the plants grow back.41Cherubini, F., Peters, G. P., Berntsen, T., Strømman, A. H., & Hertwich, E. (2011). CO2 emissions from biomass combustion for bioenergy: atmospheric decay and contribution to global warming. GCB Bioenergy. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1757-1707.2011.01102.x | "before being captured by biomass regrowth, CO2 molecules spend time in the atmosphere and contribute to global warming" and "Since this index is expressed as a function of the rotation period of the biomass, our results can be applied to CO2 emissions from combustion of all the different biomass species, from annual row crops to slower growing boreal forest." | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| High-ash residues are a cost and a liability. Worldwide, an estimated 41% of waste is burned in the open.42 | High-ash residues are a cost and a liability. Worldwide, an estimated 41% of waste is burned in the open.42Wiedinmyer, C., Yokelson, R. J., & Gullett, B. K. (2014). Global emissions of trace gases, particulate matter, and hazardous air pollutants from open burning of domestic waste. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(16), 9523-9530. https://doi.org/10.1021/es502250z https://news.ucar.edu/12239/trash-burning-worldwide-significantly-worsens-air-pollution | An estimated 41 % of the waste generated worldwide (about 1.1 billion tons a year) is disposed of by unregulated open burning. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| Fine particles from burning household waste in the open cause an estimated 270,000 premature adult deaths a year.43 | Fine particles from burning household waste in the open cause an estimated 270,000 premature adult deaths a year.43Kodros, J. K., Wiedinmyer, C., Ford, B., Cucinotta, R., Gan, R., Magzamen, S., & Pierce, J. R. (2016). Global burden of mortalities due to chronic exposure to ambient PM2.5 from open combustion of domestic waste. Environmental Research Letters, 11(12), 124022. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/12/124022 https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/11/12/124022 | Fine particulate pollution from open burning of household waste causes an estimated 270,000 premature adult deaths a year. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| land application of sewage sludge ends in Germany for plants above 100,000 population equivalents, and from 1 Jan 2032 above 50,000.44 | land application of sewage sludge ends in Germany for plants above 100,000 population equivalents, and from 1 Jan 2032 above 50,000.44Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Klimaschutz, Naturschutz und nukleare Sicherheit. (n.d.). Verordnung zur Neuordnung der Klärschlammverwertung. https://bundesumweltministerium.de/gesetz?cHash=2dbd459fcae55e0d7172ce37340bd894&tx_bmublegal_legal%5Blaw%5D=2 https://bundesumweltministerium.de/gesetz?cHash=2dbd459fcae55e0d7172ce37340bd894&tx_bmublegal_legal%5Blaw%5D=2 | "Anstelle einer Phosphorrückgewinnung ist die derzeit praktizierte bodenbezogene Verwertung ab dem Jahr 2029 nur noch von Klärschlämmen aus Abwasserbehandlungsanlagen mit einer Ausbaugröße von bis zu 100.000 Einwohnerwerten und ab dem Jahr 2032 nur noch von Klärschlämmen aus Anlagen mit einer Ausbaugröße von bis zu 50.000 Einwohnerwerten zulässig." Translation: Instead of phosphorus recovery, the currently practised soil-related use is permitted from 2029 only for sewage sludge from wastewater treatment plants with a capacity of up to 100,000 population equivalents, and from 2032 only for sewage sludge from plants with a capacity of up to 50,000 population equivalents. | Independent: institutional |
| In Germany, land spreading is ending for sludge from larger plants.45 | In Germany, land spreading is ending for sludge from larger plants.45Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Klimaschutz, Naturschutz und nukleare Sicherheit. (n.d.). Verordnung zur Neuordnung der Klärschlammverwertung. https://bundesumweltministerium.de/gesetz?cHash=2dbd459fcae55e0d7172ce37340bd894&tx_bmublegal_legal%5Blaw%5D=2 https://bundesumweltministerium.de/gesetz?cHash=2dbd459fcae55e0d7172ce37340bd894&tx_bmublegal_legal%5Blaw%5D=2 | "Anstelle einer Phosphorrückgewinnung ist die derzeit praktizierte bodenbezogene Verwertung ab dem Jahr 2029 nur noch von Klärschlämmen aus Abwasserbehandlungsanlagen mit einer Ausbaugröße von bis zu 100.000 Einwohnerwerten und ab dem Jahr 2032 nur noch von Klärschlämmen aus Anlagen mit einer Ausbaugröße von bis zu 50.000 Einwohnerwerten zulässig." Translation: Instead of phosphorus recovery, the currently practised soil-related use is permitted from 2029 only for sewage sludge from wastewater treatment plants with a capacity of up to 100,000 population equivalents, and from 2032 only for sewage sludge from plants with a capacity of up to 50,000 population equivalents. | Independent: institutional |
| Rice residues, which include straw, are most often burned, because burning is simple and low-cost.46 | Rice residues, which include straw, are most often burned, because burning is simple and low-cost.46Kaur, M., Malik, D. P., Malhi, G. S., Sardana, V., Bolan, N. S., Lal, R., & Siddique, K. H. M. (2022). Rice residue management in the Indo-Gangetic Plains for climate and food security. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 42(5), Article 92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-022-00817-0 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13593-022-00817-0 | Burning is the most common way farmers manage rice residues, mainly because it is simple and low-cost. | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| Straw causes severe slagging in many gasifiers.47 | Straw causes severe slagging in many gasifiers.47Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (1986). Wood gas as engine fuel (FAO Forestry Paper 72), section 2.4.5 and Table 2.5. https://www.fao.org/4/T0512E/T0512e0b.htm | Melting ash can completely block fixed-bed gasifiers; in lab tests, straw and pellets made from household waste (RDF) caused severe slagging. | Independent: institutional |
| Germany's sewage sludge ordinance requires phosphorus recovery from 2029 for sludge above a set phosphorus content.48 | Germany's sewage sludge ordinance requires phosphorus recovery from 2029 for sludge above a set phosphorus content.48Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Klimaschutz, Naturschutz und nukleare Sicherheit. (n.d.). Verordnung zur Neuordnung der Klärschlammverwertung. https://bundesumweltministerium.de/gesetz?cHash=2dbd459fcae55e0d7172ce37340bd894&tx_bmublegal_legal%5Blaw%5D=2 https://bundesumweltministerium.de/gesetz?cHash=2dbd459fcae55e0d7172ce37340bd894&tx_bmublegal_legal%5Blaw%5D=2 | "Als zentrales Element sieht die Verordnung erstmals umfassende Vorgaben zur Rückgewinnung von Phosphor aus Klärschlämmen und Klärschlammverbrennungsaschen vor, die Betreiber von Abwasserbehandlungsanlagen und Klärschlammverbrennungsanlagen spätestens ab dem Jahr 2029 zu beachten haben: Die Pflicht zur Rückgewinnung von Phosphor greift in den Fällen, in denen der Klärschlamm einen Phosphorgehalt von 20 Gramm oder mehr je Kilogramm Trockenmasse aufweist." Translation: As a central element the ordinance sets out comprehensive requirements for recovering phosphorus from sewage sludge and sewage sludge incineration ash, to be observed by operators from 2029: the obligation to recover phosphorus applies where the sludge has a phosphorus content of 20 grams or more per kilogram of dry matter. | Independent: institutional |
| Farming has drained soils too. The world's farmed and degraded soils have lost an estimated 42 to 78 billion tonnes of carbon over time, and adding carbon back to degraded cropland can raise crop yields.49 | Farming has drained soils too. The world's farmed and degraded soils have lost an estimated 42 to 78 billion tonnes of carbon over time, and adding carbon back to degraded cropland can raise crop yields.49Lal, R. (2004). Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security. Science, 304(5677), 1623-1627. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1097396 | "The carbon sink capacity of the world's agricultural and degraded soils is 50 to 66% of the historic carbon loss of 42 to 78 gigatons of carbon." and "An increase of 1 ton of soil carbon pool of degraded cropland soils may increase crop yield by 20 to 40 kilograms per hectare (kg/ha) for wheat, 10 to 20 kg/ha for maize, and 0.5 to 1 kg/ha for cowpeas." | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| The IPCC 2019 Refinement estimates how long char carbon lasts from field and laboratory studies, as the share that remains in soil after 100 years. For char made by high-temperature pyrolysis or gasification above 600 degrees Celsius, it estimates that share at 89 percent.50 | The IPCC 2019 Refinement estimates how long char carbon lasts from field and laboratory studies, as the share that remains in soil after 100 years. For char made by high-temperature pyrolysis or gasification above 600 degrees Celsius, it estimates that share at 89 percent.50IPCC. (2019). 2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Volume 4: Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use, Appendix 4: Method for Estimating the Change in Mineral Soil Organic Carbon Stocks from Biochar Amendments: Basis for Future Methodological Development. https://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2019rf/pdf/4_Volume4/19R_V4_Ch02_Ap4_Biochar.pdf | Table 4AP.2, headed "VALUES FOR Fperm (FRACTION OF BIOCHAR C REMAINING AFTER 100 YEARS)". The row "High temperature pyrolysis and gasification (> 600 °C)" gives 0.89 ± 13%. "The values for Fperm were calculated from field and laboratory studies for biochars that were made under different conversion conditions based on a comprehensive survey of the literature. The amount of biochar C remaining after 100 years was estimated by fitting a two-pool double-exponential model." Pages Ap4.2 to Ap4.3. | Independent: institutional |
| Researchers estimated that biochar, char made by pyrolysis and stored in soils, could at most offset about 12 percent of the human-made greenhouse gas emissions of the time, without endangering food security, habitats or soil conservation.51 | Researchers estimated that biochar, char made by pyrolysis and stored in soils, could at most offset about 12 percent of the human-made greenhouse gas emissions of the time, without endangering food security, habitats or soil conservation.51Woolf, D., Amonette, J. E., Street-Perrott, F. A., Lehmann, J., & Joseph, S. (2010). Sustainable biochar to mitigate global climate change. Nature Communications, 1(1), 56. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms1053 | "Annual net emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane and nitrous oxide could be reduced by a maximum of 1.8 Pg CO2-C equivalent (CO2-Ce) per year (12% of current anthropogenic CO2-Ce emissions; 1 Pg=1 Gt), and total net emissions over the course of a century by 130 Pg CO2-Ce, without endangering food security, habitat or soil conservation." and "Production of biochar (the carbon (C)-rich solid formed by pyrolysis of biomass) and its storage in soils have been suggested as a means of abating climate change." | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| On average across studies, char raised crop yields by about 25 percent in the tropics, and had no effect in temperate regions.52 | On average across studies, char raised crop yields by about 25 percent in the tropics, and had no effect in temperate regions.52Jeffery, S., Abalos, D., Prodana, M., Bastos, A. C., van Groenigen, J. W., Hungate, B. A., & Verheijen, F. (2017). Biochar boosts tropical but not temperate crop yields. Environmental Research Letters, 12(5), 053001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa67bd | "Here we use a global-scale meta-analysis to show that biochar has, on average, no effect on crop yield in temperate latitudes, yet elicits a 25% average increase in yield in the tropics." | Independent: peer-reviewed |
| In coarse soils, char raised the amount of water the soil can hold. In fine-textured soils, that amount remained unchanged.53 | In coarse soils, char raised the amount of water the soil can hold. In fine-textured soils, that amount remained unchanged.53Razzaghi, F., Obour, P. B., & Arthur, E. (2020). Does biochar improve soil water retention? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Geoderma, 361, 114055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.114055 | "FC and WP significantly increased for the coarse-textured soils (by 51% and 47%, respectively), and moderately for the medium-textured soils (by 13% and 9%, respectively). For the fine-textured soils, FC remained unchanged." | Independent: peer-reviewed |
Sources used on this site that are not in the evidence table above.